The course aims to provide an understanding of the fundamental issues in twentieth-century epistemology and philosophy of science. It will begin with a historical overview designed to familiarize students with key terms, concepts, and critical debates in the philosophy of science, including scientific knowledge and rationality (dogmatism, empiricism, skepticism), the scientific method and pluralism, the relationship between experiment and theory, the demarcation between science and non-science (verifiability, falsifiability, the epistemic theory of truth), as well as the representation and rationality of scientific change (the Duhem-Quine thesis, theory-ladenness). Further topics will include scientific realism and anti-realism (the underdetermination of theories, various forms of empiricist and structural realism), causality, and scientific laws.

The course will then delve into specific areas of inquiry, such as the critique and revision of Neopositivist objections to metaphysical claims, issues in the philosophy of quantum mechanics and contemporary cosmology, and the intersection of feminism and the philosophy of science. The study of the philosophy of science will foster rigor, clarity, and precision in both language and thought, encouraging the exploration of new and unconventional philosophical perspectives.

For these reasons, the course is intended for students pursuing a philosophy curriculum and those seeking to enrich their humanistic or scientific education with foundational knowledge of this discipline.

0.1 Introduction.

0.1.1 Science in relation to philosophy and other knowledge.

0.1.2 The problem of scientific rationality.

0.1.3 Science between theory and experience: the problems of logical empiricism versus those of historicist interpretations of science.

0.2 Induction and inductivism.

0.2.1 Skepticism, dogmatism, empiricism.

0.2.2 Causality and its paradoxes.

0.2.3 The problem of induction: Aristotle, Hume, Popper.

0.3 Verificationism, falsificationism.

0.3.1 From induction to verification: the Vienna Circle.

0.3.2 Popper's case and his vision of science.

0.3.3 The problem of confirmation and the criterion of demarcation of theories.

0.4 The problem of knowledge: what is epistemology, traditional approaches and new interpretations.

0.4.1 True belief, justification of belief, foundationalism and other approaches.

0.4.2 Internalism and externalism, fallibilism and infallibilism.

0.4.3 Gettier, Moore and Putnam: from verification principles to strategies to defend the existence of the “external world.”

0.5 Scientific revolutions and forms of rationality.

0.5.1 Thomas Kuhn's solution to scientific rationality: the idea of paradigm and its limitations.

0.5.2 Incommensurability, relativism, scientific change.

0.5.3 Lakatos, Kuhn, Feyerabend.

0.6 Scientific Realism.

0.6.1 Theory, reality, representation, phenomenalism.

0.6.2 Standard scientific realism, anti-realism and various forms of scientific realism.

0.6.3 The problem of underdetermination of scientific theories and the Duhem-Quine thesis.

0.7 Scientific theories and explanation.

0.7.1 The covering-law model.

0.7.2 The inference to the best possible explanation.

0.7.3 Laws, causes, evidence, objectivity.

0.8 Special problems in philosophy of science.

0.8.1 Focus I: Quantum mechanics and the overcoming of neopositivist versus metaphysical instances.

0.8.2 Focus II: The epistemological status of scientific cosmology.

0.8.3 Focus III: Thinking about scientific change in light of feminist epistemologies on science.

There are no strict pre-requisites for this course.

Applying knowledge and understanding:

By the end of the course, students should be able to understand and explain some texts in epistemology and philosophy of science, know and discuss some of the classic problems in this field of study, and use some of the main bibliographical and informational tools relevant to the field. To this end, some key texts will be read and commented on during the course. 

Making judgements:

By the end of the course, students should be able to critically discuss and evaluate key arguments and theses in epistemology, applying this knowledge to contemporary debates and ongoing philosophical discourse on the subject

Communication skills:

By the end of the course, students should be able to articulate and analyze the studied problems with conceptual and linguistic precision, as well as construct clear and concise frameworks that effectively illustrate the issues addressed. To this end, active participation in class discussions, along with careful reading and timely analysis of key texts, will be essential, enabling students to present and contextualize their insights within the broader group discourse.

Learning skills:

Students should develop a strong familiarity with the subject matter and research methodologies in the field, enabling them to independently acquire new knowledge through the effective use of key bibliographic resources in this and related disciplines.

The teaching material prepared by the lecturer in addition to recommended textbooks (such as for instance slides, lecture notes, exercises, bibliography) and communications from the lecturer specific to the course can be found inside the Moodle platform › blended.uniurb.it

Training Camp: https://filosofia.uniurb.it/training-camp/

Lectiones Commandinianae: https://sites.google.com/site/lectionescommandinianae/

Seminari Synergia: https://sites.google.com/a/uniurb.it/synergia

Teaching

The course will be conducted through lectures and seminars. A streaming link will be available upon request. Online office hours will also be offered.

Innovative teaching methods

In addition to face-to-face lectures and guided readings of philosophy of science texts, the course will incorporate debates to introduce key thematic areas. Collaborative activities include teamwork and flipped classroom sessions, culminating in a final workshop.

Attendance

Students should attend classes regularly and actively, since the very beginning. Because of the analytic and often abstract character of the subject matter, active participation in classroom discussion will be very useful. In order to do that, and in general to follow the lectures successfully, it is strongly advised to do every day the homework suggested as preparation for the following lecture.

Course books

Handbooks 

Ladyman, J., Understanding Philosophy of Science (Routledge, London, 2001)

Godfrey-Smith, P., Theory and Reality. An introduction to the philosophy of science, The University of Chicago Press, Chicago London, 2003.

Piazza, T., Che cos'è la conoscenza, Carocci, 2017.

Readings

R. Carnap, “Pseudoproblemi nella filosofia”, in La costruzione logica del mondo, a cura di E. Severino, Fabbri Editori, Milano (1966); pp. 381-423

R. Carnap, “Il superamento della metafisica mediante l’analisi logica del linguaggio”, in Il neoempirismo, a cura di A. Pasquinelli, UTET, Torino, 1969; pp. 504-532

T. Kuhn, The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, University of Chicago Press, Chicago 1962 (1969).

M. Schlick, “Significato e verificazione”, in La struttura logica del linguaggio, a cura di A. Bonomi, Bompiani, Milano (1973); pp. 71-101

 

Other sources

A. Angelucci, Che cos’è un esperimento mentale?, Carocci, 2018 (cap. 1).

M. Alai, “Verità, convergenza e corrispondenza”. In S.I.L.F.S., Prospettive della Logica e della Filosofia della Scienza, Rubbettino 2001, Soveria Mannelli, pp. 297-308.

M. Alai, “The Historical Challenge to Realism and Essential Deployment”. In Lyons, T. and Vickers P. (eds.), Contemporary Scientific Realism. The Challenge from the History of Science, Oxford University Press, New York 2021, pp. 183-215.

J. Butterfield, “On Under-determination in Cosmology”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 46 (2014), pp. 57-69

G. F. R. Ellis, “On the philosophy of cosmology”, Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics 46 (2014), 5-23

V. Fano, G. Tarozzi, "Realismo empirico e meccanica quantistica". In G. Giuliani (ed.), Ancora sul realismo, University of Pavia and Istituto Italiano per gli Studi Filosofici, Pavia (1995); pp. 144-168

R. Giere, Science without laws, Un. Chicago Press, Chicago and London 1999.

S. Harding, The Science Question in Feminism, Cornell Un. Press, Ithaca and London 1986.

H. Longino "The Social Dimensions of Scientific Knowledge" (2019). In Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, The Metaphysics Research Lab, Center for the Study of Language and Information (CSLI), Stanford University.

G. Macchia, Come può l’universo espandersi? Le origini della cosmologia moderna alla luce delle controversie degli anni Trenta, Mimesis, Udine 2024.

F. Marcacci, G. Tarozzi, “Max Planck, Causality and the Necessity of God”. In P. Allen, F. Marcacci, Divined explanation. The Theological and Philosophical Context for the Development of the Sciences (1600-2000). Brill, 2024 (August), 210-231.

F. Marcacci, “Scientific Change, Realism, and History of Science”. In Angelucci A., Fano V., Graziani, P., Galli, G., Tarozzi G. (eds.), Scientific Change, Realism, and History of Science. Festschrift for Mario Alai. Milano: Franco Angeli, 2023, 61-71

E. McMullin, “The Goals of Natural Science”, Proceedings and Addresses of the American Philosophical Association, vol. 58 n. 1 (Sept. 1984), pp. 37-64

A. Musgrave, Senso comune, scienza, scetticismo, Cortina Editore, 1995.G. Tarozzi, “Carnap e il problema del significato delle proposizioni filosofiche”, Mem. Acc. Naz. Sci. Lett. Arti Modena, VII, VIII (1993); pp. 73-80

G. Tarozzi, "Science, Metaphysics and Meaningful Philosophical Principles", Epistemologia,11 (1988); pp. 97-104 and 229-23

G. Tarozzi, “Logical Positivism, Quantum Mechanics and the Meaning of Philosophical Principles”. In G. Auletta (ed.), The Controversial Relations between Science and Philosophy, Libreria Editrice Vaticana, Vatican City (2006); pp. 129-166

G. Tarozzi, “Fisica, metafisica e criteri di conferma empirici”, Giornale di fisica, vol. 50, p. 51-61 (2009)

Assessment

Final Oral Examination. Relevant points for the evaluation: knowledge of the key concepts, problems, and issues covered in the course; comprehension and acquisition of analytical skills, critical understanding, and the ability to clearly articulate the acquired content; development of analytical reasoning skills; ability to engage in critical and personal discussion of the topics addressed in the lectures; capacity to identify and critically examine the main conceptual challenges in the assigned readings and to discuss them in a mature and well-reasoned manner. Additionally, students will be required to present an in-depth study on a topic of their choice, drawing from the initial bibliography provided in the designated section.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.

Teaching

They will study on their own (individually or with others) according to the directions of this vademecum and if possible with the help which can be given by the teacher during office hours or through e-mail, Skype, etc. 

Attendance

In order to make up for the impossibility of attending classes, a hard and careful study is required. One should already possess good skills of autonomous learning and some capacity to read and understand logic and philosophical texts, at least at a basic level. Whenever possible, it is advisable to work with other students. 

Course books

See above.

Assessment

Final Oral Examination. Relevant points for the evaluation: knowledge of the key concepts, problems, and issues covered in the course; comprehension and acquisition of analytical skills, critical understanding, and the ability to clearly articulate the acquired content; development of analytical reasoning skills; ability to engage in critical and personal discussion of the topics addressed in the lectures; capacity to identify and critically examine the main conceptual challenges in the assigned readings and to discuss them in a mature and well-reasoned manner. Additionally, students will be required to present an in-depth study on a topic of their choice, drawing from the initial bibliography provided in the designated section.

There is the possibility of taking a pre-examination based on the discussion of an in-depth paper on one of the topics in the syllabus, which will be presented through slides actively involving other students in the course.

Disability and Specific Learning Disorders (SLD)

Students who have registered their disability certification or SLD certification with the Inclusion and Right to Study Office can request to use conceptual maps (for keywords) during exams.

To this end, it is necessary to send the maps, two weeks before the exam date, to the course instructor, who will verify their compliance with the university guidelines and may request modifications.